Pax Celtica

The result of the Baudicca rebellion was that the territory of the Iceni people was devastated and much of the province came completely under the rule of the military, who were instructed by the Roman Emperor Nero to begin repression of much of the population of Britain, and then, fearing that Suetonius's repression would provoke another rebellion, recalled him from office.

After such events, Britain remained part of the Roman Empire until the fifth century (410 AD), when the Roman Empire faltered under the onslaught of the Germanic barbarians.

Although the revolt of Baudicca did not last long, the crisis caused by the revolt prompted Emperor Nero to consider withdrawing Roman troops from the island, but the victory of Suetonius' legions ensured Roman control of the province.

Boudicca is the widow of Prasutagus, king of the British Iceni tribe, who led a revolt against the Romans.

Boudicca travelled around the lands of her neighbours in a chariot, accompanied by her two daughters, urging them to join the revolt.

The rebels began by destroying the hated Camulodun. By a sudden blow the settlement was captured. All the Romans were killed, all their buildings burnt.

In all, about 70,000 Romans and their allies were killed in the revolt, according to Tacitus. Roman cities were completely destroyed by Boudicca's troops, killing all the inhabitants.

The decisive battle took place at Rockster between Londinium and Viroconium (now Roxeter). The two armies met in a narrow gorge surrounded by forest. The number of rebels, according to various estimates, ranged from 80,000 to 230,000.

Thanks to the discipline and military skill of the legionaries, the Romans managed to gain the upper hand with great difficulty

The following year Caesar prepared for a new expedition and assembled a much larger force to take part in it, which included five Roman legions, 2,000 Gallic horsemen and more than 600 ships.In July 54 B.C., with these forces, he landed again on the island. The Britons also prepared for the invasion, having concluded a military alliance among themselves and placing Cassivelaun at the head of all the combined forces.
After a series of initial successes, the Britons attacked the larger Roman force, but suffered heavy losses and were forced to retreat beyond the Thames. While pursuing them, the Romans also crossed the Thames and ravaged the territory belonging to Cassivelaunus himself. The local chiefs then sent their representatives to Caesar to ask for peace. Cassivelaunus' attempt to get his allies to attack Caesar's camp was unsuccessful. Having learnt of the ruin of his lands, of defeat and betrayal, he found it best to negotiate. Caesar demanded from him the release of hostages, set the amount of tribute.

The Greeks and Romans in antiquity had a rather vague idea of Britain. Caesar, during his conquest of Gaul (58-50 B.C.), undertook two expeditions there, the purpose of which was a kind of battlefield reconnaissance. He also intended to punish the Britons who supported his opponents on the continent. In August 55 BC Caesar assembled 80 ships on which he put two legions, allied troops and cavalry.

The Britons learnt of the impending invasion and managed to raise a militia. Their army followed the Roman fleet along the coast. Near Dubra, having driven back the Britti troops by the fire of throwing machines, Caesar landed and fortified himself on the shore. Advancing inland, he encountered fierce resistance and unfamiliar tactics of the Britons, who used chariots in battle. The Romans succeeded in routing the enemy, but due to the lack of cavalry they were unable to build on their initial success. After Caesar realised that the forces taken were not enough.

The British Celts fought the raiders and settlers from Germany as best they could. Over the next century, however, the aliens slowly squeezed them westwards until they were pushed out - by 570 - to the west of Gloucester.

Eventually, most of the Celts were driven into the mountainous regions far to the west, which the Saxons called "Wellas", or Wales, that is - "the land of the strangers". Some Celts went to Cornwall, where they later recognised the authority of the Saxon lords.

In the north, other Celts were pushed into the Lowlands, the southern part of what was later called Scotland. Some Celts remained in their own land and many of them became slaves of the Saxons. There is little left of the Celtic language or culture in Britain except the names of some rivers - the Thames, Mercia, Severn and Avon - and the two main cities, London and Leeds.

The British conquest of Ireland began in the twelfth century and followed the traditional pattern of enlargement of feudal possessions until the centralisation of power in England, which allowed the full potential of terror to be realised at that time.

The oppression of the Irish had the characteristics of comprehensive destruction - cultural, economic, religious and physical. The most bloody episodes are connected with the name of Oliver Cromwell, who landed in 1649 on the territory of Ireland at the head of a detachment of Puritans.

According to historians' calculations, during Cromwell's punitive raids from 50 to 56% of the inhabitants of Ireland were killed, which reduced the population of the island from one and a half million to 850 thousand. And a significant part of the population was already made up of settlers from England, who received the lands of the killed Irishmen.

The Celtic League is a pan-Celtic organisation founded in 1961 which aims to promote modern Celtic identity and culture in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall and the Isle of Man, referred to as the Celtic Nations; it has a particular focus on promoting the Celtic languages of these nations. It also favours further self-government in the Celtic nations and, ultimately, for each nation to become an independent state with its own rights.

The Celtic League states its aims, including:

"To promote co-operation between the Celtic nations".
"To develop a consciousness of the special relationship and solidarity between them".
"To make our national struggles and achievements better known abroad".
"Campaigning for a formal unification of the Celtic nations to take place once two or more of them have achieved self-government."
"Advocating the utilisation of the national resources of each of the Celtic nations for the benefit of all its people."

Pan-Celticism or Celtic nationalism is a political, social and cultural movement in favour of unity, solidarity and co-operation between the people of the Celtic regions (of Gaelic and Briton origin) and all modern Celts in North-West Europe.

The roots of Pan-Celticism, go back to the era of Romantic nationalism and especially the Celtic Revival. For about a century (from 1838 to 1939), the Pan-Celtic movement was one of the most influential nationalist movements. The first pan-Celtic meetings began to be held at festivals of Celtic culture such as Gorsedd and Eisteddfod, and in 1900 the Celtic Congress was formed and held annually. The Celtic League has been the face of the Pan-Celtic movement since those times.